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Germanic male monarch of Italia (r. 476–493) and usurper of the Western Roman Empire

Flavius Odoacer
Rex
Patrician
Odovacar Ravenna 477.jpg

Coin of Odoacer, Ravenna, 477, with Odoacer in profile, depicted with a "barbarian" moustache and possible elongated skull.
King of Italy
Reign 476–493
Predecessor None (Title created subsequently dissolution of Western Roman Empire)
Successor Theodoric the Great
Born c. 431
Pannonia,[ citation needed ] Western Roman Empire
Died 15 March 493(493-03-xv) (anile 61–62)
Ravenna, Kingdom of Italy
Spouse Sunigilda
Event Thela
Father Edeko
Faith Arianism

Flavius Odoacer ( OH-doh-AY-sər;[i] c.  431 – 493 Advert), besides spelled Odovacer or Odovacar (Aboriginal Greek: Ὀδόακρος, romanized: Odóakros ),[ii] was a soldier and statesman of barbaric background, who deposed the kid emperor Romulus Augustulus and became King of Italy (476–493). Odoacer'south overthrow of Romulus Augustulus is traditionally seen as mark the end of the Western Roman Empire besides equally Ancient Rome.[a]

Though the real power in Italia was in his hands, he represented himself as the client of the emperor in Constantinople, Zeno. Odoacer oft used the Roman honorific patrician, granted by Zeno, but was referred to as a king (Latin: rex) in many documents. He himself used it in the only surviving official document that emanated from his chancery, and it was also used by the consul Basilius.[iv] [b] Odoacer introduced few of import changes into the administrative organization of Italy. He had the back up of the Roman Senate and was able to distribute land to his followers without much opposition. Unrest among his warriors led to violence in 477–478, merely no such disturbances occurred during the subsequently period of his reign. Although Odoacer was an Arian Christian, he rarely intervened in the affairs of the Trinitarian state church building of the Roman Empire.

Likely of Due east Germanic descent, Odoacer was a military leader in Italy who led the revolt of Herulian, Rugian, and Scirian soldiers that deposed Romulus Augustulus on 4 September AD 476. The 12-twelvemonth-erstwhile Augustulus had been declared Western Roman Emperor by his father Orestes, the rebellious general of the regular army in Italy, less than a yr before, but had been unable to proceeds fidelity or recognition beyond cardinal Italian republic. With the backing of the Roman Senate, Odoacer thenceforth ruled Italy apart, paying lip service to the dominance of Julius Nepos, the previous Western emperor, and Zeno, the emperor of the Eastward. Upon Nepos'southward murder in 480 Odoacer invaded Dalmatia, to punish the murderers. He did and then, executing the conspirators, just within two years too conquered the region and incorporated it into his domain.

When Illus, master of soldiers of the Eastern Empire, asked for Odoacer's help in 484 in his struggle to depose Zeno, Odoacer invaded Zeno's westernmost provinces. The emperor responded offset by inciting the Rugii of present-twenty-four hour period Austria to attack Italy. During the wintertime of 487–488 Odoacer crossed the Danube and defeated the Rugii in their ain territory. Zeno as well appointed the Ostrogoth Theodoric the Corking who was menacing the borders of the Eastern Empire, to exist king of Italian republic, turning 1 troublesome marry against another. Theodoric invaded Italian republic in 489 and by August 490 had captured almost the entire peninsula, forcing Odoacer to accept refuge in Ravenna. The metropolis surrendered on 5 March 493; Theodoric invited Odoacer to a banquet of reconciliation. Instead of forging an alliance, Theodoric killed the unsuspecting king.

Ethnicity [edit]

Except for the fact that he was not considered Roman, Odoacer'due south precise indigenous origins are not known.[c] Some scholars believe his origins lie in the multi-indigenous empire of Attila. About scholars consider him to exist at to the lowest degree partly of Germanic descent, while others argue he was entirely Germanic. Early medieval sources such as Theophanes, chosen him a Goth.[5] Besides, the 6th-century chronicler, Marcellinus Comes, called him "king of the Goths" (Odoacer male monarch Gothorum).[d]

Jordanes associated him with several of the Due east Germanic tribes of the Middle Danube who had arrived at that place during the time of Attila's empire, including the Sciri, Heruli, and Rugii. In several passages he named him king of the Turcilingi, which is a people, or possibly a dynasty, that is mentioned by no other historical source. Modern historians also propose connections with Goths, Huns or the Thuringii. While in one passage in his Getica, Jordanes describes Odoacer as rex of the Turcilingi (Torcilingorum male monarch) with Scirian and Heruli followers.[6] In another passage (LVII.291), Jordanes mentions Italy during Odoacer's reign being nether the tyranny of Turcilingi and Rogii. In his Romana, the aforementioned author defines Odoacer as a descendant of the Rugii (or of a person named Rogus, Odoacer genere Rogus) with Turcilingi, Scirian and Heruli followers.[due east] It has been pointed out that Attila had an uncle of the name Rogus and suggested that Odoacer may have been his descendant.[vii]

In a fragment from a history of Priscus, reproduced by John of Antioch, Odoacer is described as a man of the Sciri, the son of Edeco, and brother of Hunuulf who killed Armatus in the eastern Roman empire.[7] [8] [f] Nonetheless, it is not universally accepted that this Edeko is the same person who lived at this time since this could exist one of 2 persons: one was an ambassador of Attila to the court in Constantinople, who escorted Priscus and other Imperial dignitaries back to Attila's camp. He was described by Priscus as a Hun. The other is mentioned past Jordanes and identified as a leader of the Sciri, forth with Hunuulf (perhaps his son), who were soundly defeated by the Ostrogoths at the Battle of Bolia in Pannonia most 469.[thousand]

Much later, a memorial plate from 1521 establish in the catacombe Chapel of St Maximus in Petersfriedhof—the burial site of St Peter'southward Abbey in Salzburg (Austria)—mentions Odoacer as King of "Rhutenes" or "Rhutenians" (Latin: Rex Rhvtenorvm), who invaded Noricum in 477. Due to its very late engagement of 1521 and several anachronistic elements, the content of that plate is considered nil more a fable.[ix] In spite of that, the plate has get a popular "source" for several theorists that try to connect Odoacer with ancient Celtic Ruthenes, and likewise with subsequently Slavic Ruthenians.[10] As noted by professor Paul R. Magocsi, those theories should exist regarded equally "inventive tales" of "creative" writers and nothing more.[11]

Many historians, such as medieval scholar Michael Frasetto, accept that Odoacer was of Scirian heritage.[12] Scholars are still to some extent divided nearly the evidence for Odoacer's begetter beingness a Hun, and also virtually the identity of the Turcilingi. There is some doubt about whether the name has been reported correctly by Jordanes, and whether they, and fifty-fifty the Sciri, were Germanic.[thirteen] Historian Erik Jensen avows that Odoacer was born to a Gothic mother and that his father Edeco was a Hun.[14] Bruce Macbain, noting that the "aboriginal sources exhibit considerable confusion over Odovacer'southward tribal amalgamation, identifying him variously every bit a Skirian, a Rogian and/or Torcilingian, a Herul, and even a Goth", afterward concludes that "not a single source calls him a Hun".[15] Historian Penny MacGeorge points out that the confusion most Odoacer's ethnicity is exaggerated. Believing that the Torcilingi were simply a fault for Thuringii, she argues that the claims he was a Hun "tin can almost certainly be dismissed". She asserts instead that Odoacer was "surely Germanic, probably half-Scirian, half-Thuringian, and he may have had connections with other tribes through intermarriage".[sixteen]

Latin memorial plate from 1521, that mentions Odoacer as King Rhutenorum (Petersfriedhof, Salzburg)

Onomastic and other show [edit]

The origin of the name Odoacer, which may give indications as to his tribal affiliation, is debated. One suggestion is that Odoacer is derived from the Germanic *Audawakraz (Gothic *Audawakrs), from aud- "wealth" and wakr- "vigilant" or, combined, "watcher of the wealth."[17] This class finds a cognate in another Germanic language, the titular Eadwacer of the Erstwhile English poem Wulf and Eadwacer (where Old English renders the earlier Germanic sound au- as ea-).[18] On the other mitt, historians Robert L. Reynolds and Robert South. Lopez explored the possibility that the name Odoacer was not Germanic, making several arguments that his ethnic background might prevarication elsewhere. One of these is that his proper name, "Odoacer", for which they claimed an etymology in Germanic languages had not been convincingly found, could exist a form of the Turkish "Ot-toghar" ("grass-built-in" or "burn-born"), or the shorter form "Ot-ghar" ("herder").[19] Reynolds and Lopez's thesis was criticized by Otto J. Maenschen-Helfen, who pointed out the speciousness of their etymological analysis, since names betwixt Germans and Huns were being used reciprocally.[20] Moreover, there is an oft ignored fragment in the Suda that was almost certainly written by the well-informed contemporary, Malchus, who identified Odoacer as a Thuringian.[21] Finally, a passage from Eugippius' Life of Saint Severinus indicated that Odoacer was so tall that he had to curve downwards to pass through the doorway, another strong statement that he was unlikely a Hun, since they were not known to be tall.[22]

Before Italy [edit]

Maybe the earliest recorded incident involving Odoacer is from a fragment of a relate preserved in the History of the Franks of Gregory of Tours. Ii different chapters of his work mention military leaders with Odoacer'due south proper noun, using ii different spellings and involving two different regions.[23]

  • In the get-go mention, a confused or disruptive study is given of a number of battles fought by King Childeric I of the Franks, Aegidius, Count Paul, and i "Adovacrius" (with an "a") who was leading a group of Saxons based at the mouth of the Loire.[23] Though in that location is no consensus, some historians, such as Reynolds and Lopez, have suggested that this Adovacrius may exist the same person as the future king of Italy.[xix]
  • In a second mention past Gregory of Tours, an Odovacrius (with an "o") made an alliance with the same Childeric, and together they fought the Alamanni, who had been causing problems in Italy. This Odoacer, with his connectedness to the region north of Italy, and his "o" spelling, is probably the future king of Italia, before he was king.[24]

The primeval supposed recorded consequence which is more certainly about Odoacer the time to come male monarch, was shortly before he arrived in Italian republic. Eugippius, in his Life of Saint Severinus, records how a grouping of barbarians on their way to Italian republic had stopped to pay their respects to the holy human. Odoacer, at the time "a fellow, of tall effigy, clad in poor apparel", learned from Severinus that he would ane day become famous.[25] Despite the fact that Odoacer was an Arian Christian and Severinus was Catholic, the latter left a deep impression on him.[25] When Odoacer took his get out, Severinus made i final comment which proved prophetic: "Go to Italy, become, now covered with mean hides; soon you will make rich gifts to many."[26] [h]

Leader of the foederati [edit]

By 470, Odoacer had become an officer in what remained of the Roman Regular army. Although Jordanes writes of Odoacer as invading Italy "as leader of the Sciri, the Heruli and allies of various races",[half dozen] modern writers draw him every bit beingness part of the Roman military institution, based on John of Antioch's statement that Odoacer was on the side of Ricimer at the start of his battle with the emperor Anthemius in 472.[12] [i] In his chapters as a soldier suddenly pitted confronting Anthemius, since he had switched sides to bring together with Ricimer, Odoacer had "hastened the emperor'south downfall."[29]

Romulus Augustus resigns the Crown (from a 19th-century illustration).

When Orestes was in 475 appointed Magister militum and patrician by the Western Roman Emperor Julius Nepos, Odoacer became caput of the Germanic foederati of Italy (the Scirian – Herulic foederati). Nether the command of Orestes were meaning contingents of Germanic peoples made up by and large of Rugii and Heruli tribesmen.[thirty] Earlier the end of that twelvemonth Orestes had rebelled and driven Nepos from Italia.[30] Orestes then proclaimed his young son Romulus the new emperor equally Romulus Augustus, called "Augustulus" (31 Oct).[31] At this time, Odoacer was a soldier rising through the ranks.[32] However, Nepos reorganized his court in Salona, Dalmatia and received homage and affirmation from the remaining fragments of the Western Empire beyond Italy and, about importantly, from Constantinople, which refused to accept Augustulus, Zeno having branded him and his father as traitors and usurpers.[33]

Almost this time the foederati, who had been quartered in Italian republic all of these years, had grown weary of this arrangement. In the words of J. B. Coffin, "They desired to have roof-trees and lands of their ain, and they petitioned Orestes to reward them for their services, by granting them lands and settling them permanently in Italia".[34] Orestes refused their petition, and they turned to Odoacer to lead their revolt confronting Orestes. Orestes was killed at Placentia along with his blood brother Paulus exterior Ravenna. The Germanic foederati, the Scirians and the Heruli, every bit well as a large segment of the Italic Roman army, and then proclaimed Odoacer rex Italiae ("king of Italy").[34] In 476 Odoacer advanced to Ravenna and captured the urban center, compelling the young emperor Romulus to forsake on four September. According to the Anonymus Valesianus, Odoacer was moved past Romulus's youth and his beauty to not only spare his life simply give him a pension of vi,000 solidi and sent him to Campania to live with his relatives.[35] [j]

Odoacer solidus struck in the name of Emperor Zeno, testifying to the formal submission of Odoacer to Zeno.

Following Romulus Augustus'south deposition, according to the historian Malchus, upon hearing of the accretion of Zeno to the throne, the Senate in Rome sent an diplomatic mission to the Eastern Emperor and bestowed upon him the Western royal insignia. The message was articulate: the West no longer required a separate Emperor, for "1 monarch sufficed [to rule] the earth". In response, Zeno accepted their gifts and this essentially brought to end any puppet emperors in the W, with Nepos banished and Anthemius dead.[36] The Eastern Emperor then conferred upon Odoacer the title of Patrician and granted him legal authority to govern Italy in the name of Rome.[37] Zeno also suggested that Odoacer should receive Nepos back as Emperor in the West,[38] "if he truly wished to human activity with justice."[k] Although he accepted the title of Patrician from Zeno, Odoacer did not invite Julius Nepos to return to Rome, and the latter remained in Dalmatia until his death. Odoacer was careful to observe form, however, and fabricated a pretence of interim on Nepos's say-so, fifty-fifty issuing coins with both his epitome and that of Zeno.[39] Following Nepos's murder in 480, who was killed while waiting in Dalmatia,[twoscore] Zeno became sole Emperor.[41]

Bury, yet, disagrees that Odoacer'southward assumption of ability marked the autumn of the Western Roman Empire:

It stands out prominently equally an important phase in the procedure of the dismemberment of the Empire. Information technology belongs to the aforementioned catalogue of chronological dates which includes A.D. 418, when Honorius settled the Goths in Aquitaine, and A.D. 435, when Valentinian ceded African lands to the Vandals. In A.D. 476 the same principle of disintegration was start practical to Italia. The settlement of Odovacar's Eastward Germans, with Zeno'southward acquiescence, began the process by which Italian soil was to laissez passer into the hands of Ostrogoths and Lombards, Franks and Normans. And Odovacar'due south title of king emphasised the significance of the change.[42]

King of Italia [edit]

Kingdom of Italia

Regnum Italicum

476–493
The Kingdom of Italy (under Odoacer) in 480 AD.

The Kingdom of Italy (under Odoacer) in 480 AD.
Capital Ravenna
Common languages Latin
Vulgar Latin
Gothic
Religion Arianism (especially among Germanics),
Chalcedonian Orthodoxy (bulk, especially among Romans),
Syncretic Roman paganism (minority of Romans),
Germanic paganism,
Judaism,
Manichaeism
Government Monarchy
Rex

• 476–493 AD

Odoacer
Legislature Roman Senate
Historical era Late Artifact and Early Center Ages

• Battle of Ravenna

2 September 476

• Romulus Augustulus abdicates

4 September 476

• Theodoric the Great assassinates Odoacer

15 March 493
Currency Solidus
Preceded past Succeeded past
Italia
Sicilia
Dalmatia
Ostrogothic Kingdom

In 476, Odoacer founded the Kingdom of Italian republic as its offset king, initiating a new era over Roman lands. According to Jordanes, at the start of his reign he "slew Count Bracila at Ravenna that he might inspire a fear of himself amongst the Romans."[43] He took many military actions to strengthen his control over Italy and its neighboring areas. He achieved a solid diplomatic coup by inducing the Vandal rex Gaiseric to cede Sicily to him. Noting that "Odovacar seized power in August of 476, Gaiseric died in January 477, and the body of water usually became closed to navigation around the offset of November", F.M. Clover dates this cession to September or October 476.[44] When Julius Nepos was murdered by two of his retainers in his state house near Salona (May 480), Odoacer assumed the duty of pursuing and executing the assassins, and at the aforementioned time established his own dominion in Dalmatia.[45]

Every bit Bury points out, "Information technology is highly important to observe that Odovacar established his political power with the co-performance of the Roman Senate, and this body seems to accept given him their loyal support throughout his reign, so far as our meagre sources permit united states to draw inferences." He regularly nominated members of the Senate to the Consulate and other prestigious offices: "Basilius, Decius, Venantius, and Manlius Boethius held the consulship and were either Prefects of Rome or Praetorian Prefects; Symmachus and Sividius were consuls and Prefects of Rome; another senator of old family, Cassiodorus, was appointed a minister of finance."[42] A. H. G. Jones also notes that under Odoacer the Senate acquired "enhanced prestige and influence" in gild to counter any desires for restoration of Imperial dominion.[46] As the near tangible example of this renewed prestige, for the commencement time since the mid-tertiary century copper coins were issued with the legend S(enatus) C(onsulto). Jones describes these coins equally "fine large copper pieces", which were "a great comeback on the miserable little nummi hitherto current", and not but were they copied past the Vandals in Africa, merely they formed the footing of the currency reform by Anastasius in the Eastern Empire.[47]

Although Odoacer was an Arian Christian, his relations with the Chalcedonian church hierarchy were remarkably good. As Grand.M. Melt notes in her introduction to Magnus Felix Ennodius' Life of Saint Epiphanius, he showed great esteem for Bishop Epiphanius: in response to the bishop's petition, Odoacer granted the inhabitants of Liguria a five-year immunity from taxes, and again granted his requests for relief from abuses by the praetorian prefect.[48] [50] The biography of Pope Felix III in the Liber Pontificalis openly states that the pontiff's tenure occurred during Odoacer's reign without any complaints about the king being registered.[49]

In 487/488, Odoacer led his army to victory against the Rugians in Noricum, taking their king Feletheus into captivity; when discussion that Feletheus' son, Fredericus, had returned to his people, Odoacer sent his brother Onoulphus with an ground forces dorsum to Noricum against him. Onoulphus establish it necessary to evacuate the remaining Romans and resettled them in Italy.[50] The remaining Rugians fled and took refuge with the Ostrogoths; the abased province was settled by the Lombards by 493.[51]

Autumn and death [edit]

As Odoacer'due south position improved, Zeno, the Eastern Emperor, increasingly saw him as a rival. Odoacer exchanged messages with Illus, who had been in open defection against Zeno since 484.[52] [m] Switching allegiances, Zeno afterward sought to destroy Odoacer and so promised Theodoric the Great and his Ostrogoths the Italian peninsula if they were to defeat and remove Odoacer. Equally both Herwig Wolfram and Peter Heather point out, Theodoric had his own reasons to agree to this offer: "Theodoric had enough feel to know (or at least suspect) that Zeno would not, in the long term, tolerate his independent power. When Theodoric rebelled in 485, we are told, he had in mind Zeno's treatment of Armatus. Armatus defected from Basilicus to Zeno in 476, and was made senior royal general for life. Within a year, Zeno had him assassinated."[53]

In 489, Theodoric led the Ostrogoths beyond the Julian Alps and into Italy. On 28 August, Odoacer met him at the Isonzo, simply to be defeated.[54] [n] He withdrew to Verona, reaching its outskirts on 27 September, where he immediately gear up a fortified army camp. Theodoric followed him and three days afterward defeated him once again.[56] [o] While Odoacer took refuge in Ravenna, Theodoric continued beyond Italy to Mediolanum, where the majority of Odoacer's army, including his chief general Tufa, surrendered to the Ostrogothic king.[57] [p] Theodoric had no reason to uncertainty Tufa's loyalty and dispatched his new general to Ravenna with a ring of elite soldiers. Herwig Wolfram observes, "[b]ut Tufa changed sides, the Gothic elite forcefulness entrusted to his command was destroyed, and Theodoric suffered his first serious defeat on Italian soil."[58] Theodoric recoiled by seeking safety in Ticinum. Odoacer emerged from Ravenna and started to besiege his rival. While both were fully engaged, the Burgundians seized the opportunity to plunder and devastated Liguria. Many Romans were taken into captivity, and did not regain their freedom until Theodoric ransomed them three years later.[58]

The post-obit summer, the Visigothic king Alaric Two demonstrated what Wolfram calls "one of the rare displays of Gothic solidarity" and sent military assist to help his kinsman, forcing Odoacer to raise his siege. Theodoric emerged from Ticinum, and on 11 Baronial 490, the armies of the 2 kings clashed on the Adda River.[58] Odoacer once again was defeated and forced back into Ravenna, where Theodoric besieged him.[59] Ravenna proved to be invulnerable, surrounded by marshes and estuaries and hands supplied by small-scale boats from its hinterlands, equally Procopius later pointed out in his History.[60] Further, Tufa remained at large in the strategic valley of the Adige near Trent, and received unexpected reinforcements when dissent among Theodoric'due south ranks led to sizable desertions.[61] That same year, the Vandals took their plow to strike while both sides were fully engaged and invaded Sicily.[59] While Theodoric was engaged with them, his ally Fredericus, rex of the Rugians, began to oppress the inhabitants of Pavia, whom the latter's forces had been garrisoned to protect. Once Theodoric intervened in person in late August, 491, his punitive acts drove Fredericus to desert with his followers to Tufa.[59] [q]

By this time, however, Odoacer appeared to have lost all promise of victory. A large-calibration sortie he sent out of Ravenna on the night of 9/10 July 491 ended in failure,[62] during which his commander-in-chief, Livilia, along with the best of his Herulian soldiers were killed.[63] On 29 Baronial 492, the Goths were about to assemble enough ships at Rimini to set upward an effective blockade of Ravenna. Despite these decisive losses, the state of war dragged on until 25 February 493 when John, bishop of Ravenna, was able to negotiate a treaty betwixt Theodoric and Odoacer to occupy Ravenna together and share articulation rule. After a 3-yr siege, Theodoric entered the city on 5 March; Odoacer was dead ten days later on, slain by Theodoric while they shared a repast.[63] Theodoric had plotted to have a group of his followers kill him while the two kings were feasting together in the purple palace of Honorius "Advertising Laurentum" ("At the Laurel Grove"); when this plan went astray, Theodoric drew his sword and struck him on the collarbone. In response to Odoacer's dying question, "Where is God?" Theodoric cried, "This is what y'all did to my friends." Theodoric was said to take stood over the trunk of his dead rival and exclaimed, "The human has no bones in his trunk."[64] [r]

Not only did Theodoric slay Odoacer, he thereafter had the betrayed king'southward loyal followers hunted down and killed as well, an event which left him every bit the master of Italy.[65] [t] Odoacer's married woman Sunigilda was stoned to expiry,[u] and his brother Onoulphus was killed by archers while seeking refuge in a church. Theodoric exiled Odoacer's son Thela to Gaul, but when he attempted to render to Italy Theodoric had him killed.[five] Despite the tragic catastrophe of his domain, followers, and family, Odoacer left an of import legacy, in that, he had laid the foundations for a groovy kingdom in Italian republic for Theodoric to exploit.[66]

Modern media portrayal [edit]

  • Odoacer is depicted in Valerio Massimo Manfredi's 2002 novel The Final Legion, and portrayed by Peter Mullan in its 2007 flick accommodation.
  • The film 476 A.D. Chapter One: The Terminal Light of Aries about Romulus Augustus's deposition by Odoacer, the Chieftain of the Ostrogoths, and the End of the Roman Empire, was released in 2013, past Ivan Pavletić.

See also [edit]

  • Alaric I
  • Gaiseric
  • Germanic peoples
  • Barbarian invasions

References [edit]

Notes [edit]

  1. ^ "Odoacer was the first barbarian who reigned over Italy, over a people who had once asserted their just superiority above the balance of mankind." Edward Gibbon, The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Chapter XXXVI.[3]
  2. ^ Marcellinus, Cassiodorus, and some Papal documents, which come up the closest to implying official use of the title, all refer to him as king (or one of its declensions). Jordanes at 1 point refers to him as Gothorum Romanorumque regnator: ruler of the Goths and the Romans. He is called an autokrator (despot) and a tyrannos (usurper, tyrant) in Procopius' Bellum Gothicum. The simply reference to Odoacer as "Male monarch of Italy" is in Victor Vitensis: Odouacro Italiae regi.
  3. ^ For more on this, meet: Stefan Krautschick, "Zwei Aspekte des Jahres 476", Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte, 35 (1986), pp. 344–371.
  4. ^ Marcellinus Comes, Chronicon, s. a. 476.
  5. ^ See:Jordanes, Romana 344.
  6. ^ The Anonymus Valesianus agrees that his father's name was Edeko (Edika), and refers to him leading Sciri and Heruli.
  7. ^ See: Priscus, fragments seven and viii, translated by C.D. Gordon, The Age of Attila: Fifth Century Byzantium and the Barbarians (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan, 1966), pp. 70–93
  8. ^ Translator of Eugippius' The Life of Saint Severin, Ludwig Bieler, explains in a footnote that "make rich gifts to many" refers to the custom of Germanic war leaders giving lavishly to their followers, because "generosity was i of the virtues which a king was supposed to have."[27]
  9. ^ Likewise See: John of Antioch, fragment 209; translated by C. D. Gordon, Age of Attila, p. 122. Procopius describes him as ane of the Emperor'due south bodyguards, but agreeing to this position if placed in accuse of them.[28]
  10. ^ Likewise see: Anonymus Valesianus, 8.38. Text and English translation of this document is in J.C. Rolfe (trans.), Ammianus Marcellinus (Cambridge: Harvard University Printing, 1972), vol. 3 pp. 531ff
  11. ^ Meet:Malchus, fragment 10, translated in C. D. Gordon, The Historic period of Attila, pp. 127–129.
  12. ^ Melt writes, "One wonders at [Ennodius'] brevity," adding that during "the thirteen years of Odovacar's mastery of Italy... a menstruum which embraced nearly half the episcopate of Epiphanius–Ennodius devotes but eight sections of the vita (101–107), 5 of which are taken up with the restoration of the churches." Melt uses Ennodius' brevity as an argumentum ex silentio to prove that Odoacer was very supportive of the Church. "Ennodius was a loyal supporter of Theodoric the Dandy. Any oppression, therefore, on the part of Odovacar would not be passed over in silence." She concludes that Ennodius' silence "may be construed as an unintentional tribute to the moderation and tolerance of the barbaric king."[48]
  13. ^ As well run across: John of Antioch, fragment 214; translated by C. D. Gordon, Historic period of Attila, p. 152.
  14. ^ For several years the armies of Odoacer and Theodoric marched dorsum and forth equally they vied for command of Italy.[55]
  15. ^ See also: Anonymus Valesianus, 11.50f. This follows how Thomas Hodgkins explains this confusing chronology of the Anonymus Valesianus; Italy and her Invaders (Oxford, 1885), vol. 4 p. 214.
  16. ^ As well Come across:Anonymus Valesianus, xi.52.
  17. ^ Wolfram suggests that quondam in 492 or 493, Fredericus and Tufa quarreled and fought a battle, during which both were killed. To this Wolfram adds, that the Rugians "rejoined the Gothic male monarch" (by whom, he means Theodoric).[59]
  18. ^ John of Antioch, fragment 214a; translated by C. D. Gordon, reports the statement every bit, "There certainly wasn't a bone in this wretched fellow." Age of Attila, pp. 182f. Both the Anonymus Valesianus (11.55) and Andreas Agnellus (Liber pontificalis ecclesiae Ravennatis, ch. 39) places the murder in Advertizing Laurentum. Herwig Wolfram explains Theodoric's claim of avenging his "friends" as recompense for the death of a Rugian regal couple – "it apparently did non matter that their son was at that very moment in open up rebellion against Theodoric."[63]
  19. ^ See:Anonymus Valesianus 11.56
  20. ^ Co-ordinate to one business relationship, "That aforementioned twenty-four hour period, all of Odoacer's army who could exist institute anywhere were killed by lodge of Theodoric, too as all of his family unit."[s]
  21. ^ However, Wolfram writes that Sunigilda was starved to death.[63]
  22. ^ See: John of Antioch, fragment 214a.

Citations [edit]

  1. ^ "Odoacer". Random Firm Webster'south Unabridged Dictionary.
  2. ^ Martindale 1980, p. 791.
  3. ^ Gibbon 1998, p. 716.
  4. ^ Martindale 1980, pp. 791–793.
  5. ^ MacGeorge 2002, p. 284.
  6. ^ a b Jordanes 1915, p. 119 [XLVI.242].
  7. ^ a b Reynolds & Lopez 1946, p. 44.
  8. ^ Kim 2013, pp. 98–99.
  9. ^ Friedhof und Katakomben im Stift St. Peter
  10. ^ Sotiroff 1974, p. 93.
  11. ^ Magocsi 2015, pp. 50–51.
  12. ^ a b Frassetto 2003, p. 275.
  13. ^ Kim 2013, pp. 98–101.
  14. ^ Jensen 2018, p. xvi.
  15. ^ Macbain 1983, p. 325.
  16. ^ MacGeorge 2002, p. 286.
  17. ^ Waldman & Mason 2006, p. 699.
  18. ^ Voyles 1992, p. 141.
  19. ^ a b Reynolds & Lopez 1946, p. 45.
  20. ^ Macbain 1983, p. 324.
  21. ^ Macbain 1983, p. 326.
  22. ^ Macbain 1983, p. 327.
  23. ^ a b Gregory of Tours 1974, p. 132 [II.18–19].
  24. ^ MacGeorge 2002, p. 110.
  25. ^ a b Thompson 1982, p. 63.
  26. ^ Eugippius 1965, p. 64.
  27. ^ Eugippius 1965, p. 65fn.
  28. ^ Prokopios 2014, p. 251 [5.1.half dozen].
  29. ^ Wolfram 1997, p. 184.
  30. ^ a b Goldsworthy 2009, p. 367.
  31. ^ Bury 1923, p. 405.
  32. ^ Thompson 1982, pp. 63–64.
  33. ^ Bury 1958, p. 190.
  34. ^ a b Bury 1923, p. 406.
  35. ^ Bernard 1970, p. 19.
  36. ^ Bury 1923, p. 407.
  37. ^ Heather 2005, pp. 428–429.
  38. ^ Heather 2005, p. 429.
  39. ^ Elton 2018, p. 219.
  40. ^ Bunson 1995, p. 292.
  41. ^ Grant 1998, pp. 46–47.
  42. ^ a b Coffin 1923, p. 409.
  43. ^ Jordanes 1915, p. 119 [XLVI.243].
  44. ^ Clover 1999, p. 237.
  45. ^ Bury 1923, p. 410.
  46. ^ Jones 1964, p. 253.
  47. ^ Jones 1964, p. 254.
  48. ^ a b Ennodius 1942, p. 12fn.
  49. ^ Davis 2001, p. 41fn.
  50. ^ Amory 1997, p. 121.
  51. ^ Paul the Deacon 2003, pp. 31–33 [XIX].
  52. ^ Lee 2013, p. 100.
  53. ^ Heather 1996, p. 217.
  54. ^ Heather 2013, pp. 50–51.
  55. ^ Delbrück 1990, p. 289.
  56. ^ Heather 2013, p. 51.
  57. ^ Frassetto 2003, p. 337.
  58. ^ a b c Wolfram 1988, p. 281.
  59. ^ a b c d Wolfram 1988, p. 282.
  60. ^ Prokopios 2014, pp. 252–253 [5.1.18–23].
  61. ^ Heather 1996, p. 219.
  62. ^ Wolfram 1997, p. 188.
  63. ^ a b c d Wolfram 1988, p. 283.
  64. ^ Amory 1997, p. 69.
  65. ^ Halsall 2007, p. 287.
  66. ^ Frassetto 2003, p. 276.

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Further reading [edit]

  • Gregory, Timothy E. (2005). A History of Byzantium . Malden, MA; Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN978-0-63123-513-2.

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Odoacer

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